March 31

Xiaoming ruled the Northern Wei dynasty from 515 until his death in 528 at the age of eighteen. He became emperor under the regency of his mother, Empress Dowager Hu, and faced court intrigues and power struggles throughout his reign. Despite his youth, Xiaoming attempted reforms aimed at strengthening central authority and stabilizing the empire. His mysterious death has been attributed to poisoning, marking a turbulent chapter in Northern Wei history. His reign foreshadowed the eventual split of the dynasty into Eastern and Western Wei.

Abu Ja'far Ahmad ibn Muhammad was the emir of the Saffarid dynasty from 963 until his death. Born into a family of Persian landholders, he inherited the realm from his father and continued its expansion. He battled rival dynasties and sought to maintain autonomy from the Abbasid Caliphate. Although his rule was short-lived, Ahmad's leadership helped sustain Saffarid influence in the region. His tenure exemplifies the shifting power dynamics of 10th-century Persia.

Pousa served as the voivode of Transylvania in the early 13th century and played a key role in defending the region against Mongol incursions. Little is recorded about his early life, but he is remembered for organizing local resistance during the devastating Mongol invasion of 1241. His leadership helped preserve the social and economic structures of Transylvanian communities. Pousa’s efforts are emblematic of the feudal lords who faced overwhelming odds during the Mongol onslaught. His death marks a period of upheaval that reshaped medieval Eastern Europe.

Ivan I of Moscow, known as Ivan Kalita, ruled as Grand Duke of Moscow from 1325 until his death in 1340. He secured favor with the Mongol khans by efficiently collecting and forwarding tribute, earning him the nickname 'Kalita,' or 'purse.' Under his leadership, Moscow's political and economic power grew at the expense of neighboring principalities. He used accumulated wealth to buy lands and churches, laying the foundation for Moscow's future dominance. Ivan’s reign set the stage for the rise of Moscow as the center of Russian power.

Francis I reigned as King of France from 1515 until his death in 1547, ushering in an era of cultural revival by patronizing artists like Leonardo da Vinci. He pursued military campaigns in Italy, securing victories at Marignano and expanding French territories. Francis modernized the French administration and strengthened the monarchy, laying groundwork for absolute rule. He also fostered alliances through strategic marriages and diplomacy, balancing power with the Habsburgs. His reign left a lasting imprint on French art, architecture, and governance.

Philip I, called 'the Magnanimous,' ruled Hesse from 1509 to 1567. He embraced the Protestant Reformation and became a leading figure among German princes opposing the Emperor. Philip founded and led the Schmalkaldic League, uniting Protestant states against imperial forces. Under his reign, Hesse became a center of Protestant scholarship, attracting reformers and scholars. He enacted administrative and economic reforms, strengthening his territory. Philip's diplomatic and military actions helped shape the religious and political landscape of 16th-century Europe. His legacy continued through his descendants who ruled the Hessian lands for generations.

Philip III ascended the Spanish throne in 1598, succeeding his father Philip II. Despite his personal devotion to Catholicism, he delegated much of his authority to his valido, the Duke of Lerma. Under his reign, Spain expelled the Moriscos in 1609, a controversial decision with lasting social consequences. His government continued Spain's involvement in the Eighty Years' War and the early stages of the Thirty Years' War. The reliance on royal favorites led to political corruption and fiscal difficulties for the Spanish monarchy. Philip's patronage of religious institutions reflected his commitment to the Counter-Reformation. His reign marked the beginning of Spain's gradual decline as Europe's dominant power.

Gonzalo Méndez de Canço served as Royal Governor of La Florida from 1596 to 1602 and again from 1603 to 1607. A veteran of Mediterranean naval campaigns, he applied his maritime expertise to defend Spanish interests in the New World. He strengthened the fortifications of St. Augustine, improving palisades and artillery positions. Méndez de Canço led expeditions to repel English privateers and protect local settlements. He negotiated treaties with indigenous chiefs to maintain peace and facilitate Spanish colonization. Under his administration, agricultural production and missionary activities expanded in the province. His leadership helped secure Spain's claim to Florida during a period of intense colonial rivalry.

Edward Hyde began his career as a soldier, serving in various European campaigns and earning recognition for his leadership. He later represented his family as a Member of Parliament, supporting royal interests while navigating party politics. In 1716, Hyde was appointed Colonial Governor of New York, where he worked to stabilize frontier relations and improve defenses. He promoted trade, reorganized land grants, and sought to mediate conflicts between settlers and Native Americans. Hyde's tenure faced opposition from local factions but introduced administrative reforms that benefited the colony. After returning to England, he continued his involvement in national affairs until his death in 1723. His contributions to colonial governance influenced the development of British North America.

Born in Hanover, Frederick moved to Britain as the eldest son of King George II and Queen Caroline. He often clashed with his parents over political influence and patronage, leading to a public rivalry within the royal family. Frederick's court became a hub for opposition figures and intellectuals, fostering debate against the government's policies. A patron of the arts, he supported composers like George Frideric Handel and encouraged cultural pursuits. In 1736, he married Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, and they had nine children, including the future King George III. Although he never ascended the throne, his descendants shaped British history through the Georgian era. Frederick's life reflects the complex dynamics of royal politics in 18th-century Britain.

John C. Calhoun (1782–1850) was an influential lawyer and politician from South Carolina. He held the office of U.S. Vice President from 1825 to 1832 under Presidents John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. Calhoun was a principal architect of the doctrine of nullification, asserting that states could invalidate federal laws they deemed unconstitutional. As Secretary of War and Secretary of State, he shaped early American policy on defense and diplomacy. His career was marked by fierce debates on federal power and slavery, making him one of the era's most controversial figures. Calhoun's legacy continues to influence discussions on states' rights and the limits of federal authority.

Galusha A. Grow (1823–1907) was an influential American lawyer, politician, and agricultural advocate who rose to prominence during the Civil War era. Representing Pennsylvania, he played a key role in the passage of the Homestead Act of 1862, which revolutionized land policy and encouraged westward expansion. As Speaker of the House from 1861 to 1863, Grow guided legislative efforts to fund the Union war effort and strengthen federal authority. After leaving Congress, he dedicated himself to farming innovations and publishing agricultural journals, sharing practical methods with farmers nationwide. Known for his moderate views, he often sought compromise during a period of intense national division. Grow's legacy endures in the Homestead Act's lasting impact on American settlement and his contributions to congressional leadership. His blend of political acumen and agricultural expertise made him a multifaceted figure in 19th-century America.