962day.year
Emperor Otto I and Pope John XII co-sign the Diploma Ottonianum, recognizing John as ruler of Rome.
In 962, Emperor Otto I and Pope John XII co-signed the Diploma Ottonianum, affirming the pope's temporal authority in Rome under the protection of the Holy Roman Emperor.
The Diploma Ottonianum was a landmark agreement that defined the relationship between the Holy Roman Empire and the papacy. By its terms, Otto I guaranteed military protection for Rome and the papacy. In return, Pope John XII recognized Otto’s authority over imperial lands and pledged fealty. This accord reinforced the political foundations of the medieval church-state alliance. It resolved ongoing disputes over investiture and territorial control in Italy. The treaty shaped European diplomacy and imperial influence for centuries. Its legacy endured in subsequent papal and imperial interactions throughout the Middle Ages.
962
Otto I
John XII
Diploma Ottonianum
Rome
1462day.year
The Treaty of Westminster is finalised between Edward IV of England and the Scottish Lord of the Isles.
In 1462, Edward IV and the Scottish Lord of the Isles sealed the Treaty of Westminster, reinforcing border security and political ties.
The Treaty of Westminster addressed ongoing tensions between the English crown and semi-autonomous Scottish Highland lords. By its terms, the Lord of the Isles pledged loyalty to Edward IV and agreed to curb cross-border raids. In exchange, Edward recognized the lord’s territorial privileges and offered military support against rival Scottish clans. The agreement sought to stabilize the frontier and strengthen Edward’s northern defenses. It represented a rare diplomatic accord between England and powerful Scottish magnates during the Wars of the Roses. However, the alliance remained fragile amid shifting loyalties and internal conflicts in both kingdoms. The treaty influenced later Anglo-Scottish relations and Highland governance.
1462
Treaty of Westminster
Edward IV of England
Lord of the Isles
1542day.year
Catherine Howard, the fifth wife of Henry VIII of England, is executed for adultery.
In 1542, Catherine Howard, Henry VIII’s fifth wife, was executed at the Tower of London on charges of adultery.
Catherine Howard’s marriage to Henry VIII was initially celebrated as a hopeful renewal of the Tudor dynasty. Accusations of her past and alleged adulterous relationships led to her arrest and swift trial. Found guilty in a court dominated by Henry’s councilors, she was sentenced to death for treason. On February 13, 1542, Catherine was beheaded within the Tower of London, barely a year into her queenship. Her downfall deepened the king’s notorious fear of betrayal in his marriages. The execution underscored the precarious position of Tudor consorts and the brutal politics of Henry’s court. Catherine’s tragic fate became emblematic of the era’s ruthless monarchical power struggles.
1542
Catherine Howard
Henry VIII of England
adultery
1642day.year
The Clergy Act becomes law, excluding bishops of the Church of England from serving in the House of Lords.
In 1642, the Clergy Act was enacted, barring bishops of the Church of England from sitting in the House of Lords.
Passed by the English Parliament amid rising tensions preceding the Civil War, the Clergy Act curtailed ecclesiastical power. By excluding Lords Spiritual, the law aimed to limit the church’s political influence in governance. This move reflected Parliamentary efforts to assert authority over royal and religious institutions. It altered the composition of the upper chamber and shifted the balance in favor of Commons representation. Although later repealed, the Act foreshadowed broader constitutional struggles in 17th-century England. The legislation demonstrated the deep intertwining of religion and politics on the eve of civil conflict. It set a precedent for debates over the role of clergy in state affairs.
1642
Clergy Act
bishops
Church of England
House of Lords
1689day.year
William and Mary are proclaimed co-rulers of England.
In 1689, following the Glorious Revolution, William III and Mary II were proclaimed joint sovereigns of England, marking the beginning of a constitutional monarchy.
The Glorious Revolution of 1688 ousted King James II and invited his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange to take the throne. On February 13, 1689, Parliament formally declared William and Mary as co-monarchs, each wielding equal authority. This unprecedented co-reign emphasized Protestant rule and parliamentary consent. Later that year, they accepted the Bill of Rights, limiting royal prerogatives and establishing key civil liberties. Their accession laid the groundwork for modern parliamentary democracy in Britain.
1689
William
Mary
England
1726day.year
Parliament of Negrete between Mapuche and Spanish authorities in Chile bring an end to the Mapuche uprising of 1723–26.
In 1726 the Parliament of Negrete concluded negotiations between Mapuche leaders and Spanish authorities, ending the Mapuche uprising in southern Chile.
After three years of intense guerrilla warfare by the indigenous Mapuche people, colonial officials convened the Parliament of Negrete on February 13, 1726. Delegates from both sides reached an agreement that recognized certain Mapuche territories and secured peace. The accord allowed Spanish settlers to resume trade and missionary work in the region. While it temporarily restored stability, the terms were fragile and hostilities would later flare in future decades. Nonetheless, the treaty marked a significant moment in colonial-indigenous diplomacy in Chile.
1726
Parliament of Negrete
Mapuche
Mapuche uprising of 1723–26
1755day.year
Treaty of Giyanti signed by VOC, Pakubuwono III and Prince Mangkubumi. The treaty divides the Javanese kingdom of Mataram into two: Sunanate of Surakarta and Sultanate of Yogyakarta.
The 1755 Treaty of Giyanti split the Javanese Mataram kingdom into the Sultanate of Yogyakarta and the Sunanate of Surakarta under Dutch influence.
On February 13, 1755, representatives of the Dutch East India Company brokered the Treaty of Giyanti between Prince Mangkubumi and Pakubuwono III. The agreement partitioned the Mataram Sultanate into two separate entities: the Sultanate of Yogyakarta under Mangkubumi and the Sunanate of Surakarta loyal to the Dutch-backed Pakubuwono. This division weakened central Javanese power and expanded VOC control over Java. The new political structure has endured into modern Indonesia, with both regions recognized as special provinces. The treaty exemplifies the impact of colonial diplomacy on indigenous states.
1755
Treaty of Giyanti
VOC
Pakubuwono III
Prince Mangkubumi
Mataram
Sunanate of Surakarta
Sultanate of Yogyakarta
1849day.year
The delegation headed by Metropolitan bishop Andrei Șaguna hands out to the Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria the General Petition of Romanian leaders in Transylvania, Banat and Bukovina, which demands that the Romanian nation be recognized.
In 1849, Bishop Andrei Șaguna led Romanian leaders in delivering a petition to Emperor Franz Joseph I, demanding national recognition within the Habsburg Empire.
Amid the revolutions sweeping Europe in 1848–49, Metropolitan Bishop Andrei Șaguna spearheaded a delegation presenting the General Petition in Vienna. On February 13, 1849, they requested formal acknowledgment of Romanians as a distinct nation with equal rights under the Austrian crown. The document, signed by Transylvanian, Banat and Bukovina leaders, sought administrative and cultural protections. While Emperor Franz Joseph I received the petition, substantial reforms were slow to follow. Nonetheless, the effort galvanized Romanian nationalism and laid groundwork for future political progress.
1849
Andrei Șaguna
Franz Joseph I of Austria
Transylvania
Banat
Bukovina
Romanian nation
1861day.year
Italian unification: The Siege of Gaeta ends with the capitulation of the defending fortress, effectively bringing an end of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
The 1861 surrender of Gaeta ended the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, a pivotal victory in Italy’s unification.
After a prolonged blockade and bombardment by Piedmontese forces, the fortress of Gaeta capitulated on February 13, 1861. King Francis II and his court evacuated, marking the fall of the Bourbon regime in southern Italy. This triumph allowed Victor Emmanuel II to annex the former kingdom and press forward with unification. Giuseppe Garibaldi’s earlier southern campaign was vindicated by this strategic win. The end of Gaeta thus signaled the near completion of the Risorgimento and the birth of modern Italy.
1861
Italian unification
Siege of Gaeta
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
1913day.year
The 13th Dalai Lama proclaims Tibetan independence following a period of domination by Manchu Qing dynasty and initiated a period of almost four decades of independence.
In 1913, the 13th Dalai Lama declared Tibet a sovereign state, initiating nearly forty years of de facto independence.
With the collapse of Qing rule, Thubten Gyatso proclaimed Tibetan independence in Lhasa on February 13, 1913. He established a provisional government, organized a modern army and opened diplomatic channels with Britain, Nepal and Mongolia. The Dalai Lama sought to solidify autonomy through administrative reforms and international agreements. This era saw infrastructure improvements and limited educational initiatives in Tibet. While Tibet’s independence lacked widespread global recognition, it remained functionally self-governing until the Chinese invasion of 1950.
1913
13th Dalai Lama
Tibetan
Qing dynasty
four decades of independence
1931day.year
The British Raj completes its transfer from Calcutta to New Delhi.
The British colonial administration in India formally moved its capital from Calcutta to the newly built New Delhi.
After two decades of construction following the Delhi Durbar of 1911, the British government officially transferred its administrative capital from Calcutta to New Delhi on February 13, 1931.
Designed by architects Sir Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker, the new city symbolized the might and modernity of the British Empire in India.
Ceremonies were held at the Viceroy's House and the Legislative Assembly, marking the conclusion of the relocation.
New Delhi's wide avenues and grand buildings embodied imperial ambition and replaced the older colonial capital.
The move centralized government functions and influenced urban development in India.
Today, New Delhi remains the seat of government in the Republic of India.
1931
British Raj
Calcutta
New Delhi
1935day.year
A jury in Flemington, New Jersey finds Bruno Hauptmann guilty of the 1932 kidnapping and murder of the Lindbergh baby, the son of Charles Lindbergh.
Bruno Hauptmann was convicted for the infamous 1932 kidnapping and murder of Charles Lindbergh's infant son.
In one of the most sensational trials of the 20th century, a jury in Flemington, New Jersey, found Bruno Hauptmann guilty on all counts on February 13, 1935.
The case centered on the 1932 abduction and murder of 20-month-old Charles Lindbergh Jr., son of the famed aviator Charles Lindbergh.
Prosecutors presented evidence linking Hauptmann to the ransom money and wood from the homemade ladder.
The trial drew massive media attention, with courtroom galleries packed and newspapers providing exhaustive coverage.
Hauptmann maintained his innocence, but he was sentenced to death and executed in 1936.
The case led to the Federal Kidnapping Act, popularly known as the Lindbergh Law, enhancing penalties for interstate abductions.
1935
Flemington, New Jersey
Bruno Hauptmann
1932
kidnapping and murder of the Lindbergh baby
Charles Lindbergh